Modulation as Variation in Target – Language Translation Equivalence : The Case of English and Slovene

for concrete, e.g. sleep in the open=dormir à la belle étoile cause for e!ect, e.g. You’re quite a stranger=On ne vous voit plus one part for another, e.g. from cover to cover=de la première à la dernière page reversal of terms, e.g. n’appelez pas du bas de l’escalier=don’t call up the stairs active for passive and vice versa, e.g. (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995, 139) You are wanted on the phone translated by an active verb in French, On vous demande au téléphone. space for time, e.g. as this in itself (space) presented a di3culty=cela présentant déjà (time) une di3culté intervals and limits (Vinay and Darbelnet note here that “this modulation is important in ethnological matters” [1995, 253]), e.g. No parking between signs=Limite de stationnement change of symbols (Vinay and Darbelnt point out that symbolism used in French and English is based on rather di*erent images [1995, 253–4]), e.g. Trade followed the 4ag=Les soldats 5rent place au commerce Newmark (1988, 88–9) also points out that modulation is clearly necessary in some cases, especially where there is a lexical gap in an opposition, e.g. shallow=peu profond; however, in other cases the procedure is potentially available, but one should use modulation only if the chosen translation sounded unnatural without it. Furthermore, on the level of the lexicon Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, 87–8) describe modulation also in relation to memory associations that are evoked by a word or an expression. %ey refer to it as lexical modulation. Associations can be those of synonyms or antonyms and parallel terms as well (ibid., 87). Parallel terms are especially important when interpreting the process of modulation since they “share the broad aspects of a general idea or object” (ibid.). %is parallel series is led by a generic word and consists of words on the same level of generic–speci5c hierarchy; their position is not invariable and can alter with modi$cation in the order of concepts from time to time adopted by society; e.g. in 1914 aeronautics belonged to the same level as infantry, artillery, engineers and cavalry; however, over time it has gradually been promoted to the rank of aviation and is now parallel to the army and navy. Its generic superordinate became armed forces, substituting for the previous ground forces. %is proves useful in a monolingual context, “but translators also $nd it important because it creates a mental context which permits the identi$cation of the sense they are dealing with” (ibid.), e.g. where (American) English uses swim, the French would use either nager when swim is a part of physical activities such as walk, jump, run, etc., or se baigner when it refers to leisure activities as go for a walk, read, play tennis, and as such often has the form of to go swimming (ibid.).


Introduction: The Issue of Modulation
Modulation in linguistics is a phenomenon found either in a monolingual framework, where it refers to the addition or removal of meaning within the text for easier or accurate interpretation of a particular sense (Cruse 2000, 120-3), or in a bilingual one, in which it is described as one of the translation procedures with a change in viewpoint, encompassing some typical properties adding to its speci c position in translation theory and practice. 1  In this paper, however, modulation is assigned a narrower role than those just mentioned; it is not the method of translation I am focusing on, nor the features of each Slovene translation equivalent (e.g. as to their in/appropriate translation) of the source-language (hereafter SL) item, nor how and to what extent they di er from each other, but rather the plurality of targetlanguage (hereafter TL) options -as it came to be and what caused it.
To be precise, modulation in this view represents a situation where a particular English collocation forming part of the SL text has been or can be translated by two or more Slovene translation equivalents; for example, the English collocation had a profound e ect in the context of [..., he was struck by how little most of us know about these years, which had such a profound e ect on American political and social life...] (McGrath 2010, 1) is translated by SL (...leta, ki so) imela (tako) globok učinek, 2 but one might also suggest e.g.imela velik/močan učinek/vpliv.e idea that springs to mind in this situation is whether two or more Slovene translation equivalents semantically corresponding to the English collocation of the SL text occur at least in part due to the nature of the English collocation, its co-text, or are simply part of the TL and its processing.
However, even if diverging signi cantly from my own interpretation of the concept above, some considerations of modulation regarded as a contextual phenomenon in a monolingual context or as a translation process perceived bilingually should rst be introduced too.

Modulation: Contextual Modulation in a Monolingual Framework and as a Translation Procedure in a Bilingual one 2.1 Contextual Modulation
In a monolingual setting, modulation tends to be context-related and is indicative of the e ects of 1 This view of modulation is based mostly on the theory of Vinay and Darbelnet in their Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais (1958).
2 This Slovene translation equivalent constitutes a part of the draft Slovene translation (not proofread) based on an English publication in The New York Times.
context on the meaning of a word, in which case the focus remains on its semantic functions, and where it is also referred to as sense modulation.Several processes occur within the functions of sense modulation, particularly selection, coercion and modulation (Cruse 2000, 120).Selection is used to suppress all readings that might cause some sort of semantic clash 3 with the context.e one that is not suppressed is the selected one and the speaker or hearer does not even consider any other possibilities.However, in the case where none of the readings of the word is compatible with the context, the speaker might make use of di erent meaning extensions, such as metaphor or metonymy.If such a reading is then found, it is recognized as the intended reading and the context has thus coerced a new reading.Contextual modulation involves contextual e ects that do not go beyond the bounds of a single sense, in which case we are dealing with enrichment (adding meaning or making it more speci c), e.g.Our teacher is on maternity leave, where gender is determined (ibid., 121), and impoverishment (removing meaning), e.g. e children formed a circle around the teacher, where context demands a vague use of the lexical item circle, since we do not expect children to form a geometrically exact circle and "the description is vague in the sense (a) that it covers a range of possible dispositions of the children, and (b) that it is not clear what arrangements are excluded" (ibid., 122).

Modulation as a Translation Procedure
My research stems from Vinay and Darbelnet's Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais (1958), where modulation is "a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view" (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995, 36) and is used when the direct translation into the target language would be considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward (ibid.).e authors study modulation on three planes of expression: lexicon or lexis, syntactic structure and message.
e LEXICON covers the lexical properties of modulation (also called lexical modulation, 1995, 88-9) with a focus on how they a ect our mental categories, e.g.(ibid., 41) FR EN: Peu profond shallow.Vinay and Darbelnet categorize modulation into several pairs of modulations which are summed up by Newmark (1988, 88-9): negated contrary or positive for double negative (and vice versa), which he claims can be applied to virtually any action (verb) or quality (adjective or adverb), e.g.FR Il n'a pas hésité=EN He acted at once and Il n'est pas lâche=He is extremely brave 3 As to semantic clash, units of meaning impose semantic conditions of some kind on their syntagmatic partners and, if they are satisfied, the result turns out to be well formed; however if conditions are not fulfilled, some sort of clash may occur causing a semantic transformation and producing a reading that does not abide by these conditions.Cruse terms them co-occurrence preferences and distinguishes two typescollocational and selectional preferences (ibid., 221-2).Later he refers to selectional and collocational restrictions (ibid., 228-34), both summed up by Gabrovšek (2000, 207-8), who states that they are essentially semantic; however "the former, traditionally stated in the form of semantic categories to which lexical patterns had to belong, are an inescapable consequence of the meaning of a word (e.g. the direct object of to kill must be capable of referring to something that is animate and alive at the time the action is carried out; not taking this into account is violating the selectional restrictions of to kill), while the latter are extraneous to the core meaning of a word (e.g. the oddness of the Vice-Chancellor's wages, where the restriction violated does not arise logically from the concept of 'earnings', which in any case is common to both wages and salary; rather, it is attached as a kind of peripheral extra).Violating selectional restrictions thus leads to contradiction or incongruity, while violating collocational restrictions leads to inappropriateness".
part for the whole which consists of familiar alternatives, e.g.(Vinay and Darbelnet 1995, 251) La Palais Bourbon for the French Parliament abstract for concrete, e.g.sleep in the open=dormir à la belle étoile cause for e ect, e.g.You're quite a stranger=On ne vous voit plus one part for another, e.g. from cover to cover=de la première à la dernière page reversal of terms, e.g.n'appelez pas du bas de l'escalier=don't call up the stairs active for passive and vice versa, e.g.(Vinay and Darbelnet 1995, 139) You are wanted on the phone translated by an active verb in French, On vous demande au téléphone.space for time, e.g. as this in itself (space) presented a di culty=cela présentant déjà (time) une di culté intervals and limits (Vinay and Darbelnet note here that "this modulation is important in ethnological matters" [1995,253]), e.g.No parking between signs=Limite de stationnement change of symbols (Vinay and Darbelnt point out that symbolism used in French and English is based on rather di erent images [1995,), e.g.Trade followed the ag=Les soldats rent place au commerce Newmark (1988, 88-9) also points out that modulation is clearly necessary in some cases, especially where there is a lexical gap in an opposition, e.g.shallow=peu profond; however, in other cases the procedure is potentially available, but one should use modulation only if the chosen translation sounded unnatural without it.
Furthermore, on the level of the lexicon Vinay and Darbelnet (1995, 87-8) describe modulation also in relation to memory associations that are evoked by a word or an expression.ey refer to it as lexical modulation.
Associations can be those of synonyms or antonyms and parallel terms as well (ibid., 87).Parallel terms are especially important when interpreting the process of modulation since they "share the broad aspects of a general idea or object" (ibid.). is parallel series is led by a generic word and consists of words on the same level of generic-speci c hierarchy; their position is not invariable and can alter with modi cation in the order of concepts from time to time adopted by society; e.g. in 1914 aeronautics belonged to the same level as infantry, artillery, engineers and cavalry; however, over time it has gradually been promoted to the rank of aviation and is now parallel to the army and navy.Its generic superordinate became armed forces, substituting for the previous ground forces.is proves useful in a monolingual context, "but translators also nd it important because it creates a mental context which permits the identi cation of the sense they are dealing with" (ibid.),e.g.where (American) English uses swim, the French would use either nager when swim is a part of physical activities such as walk, jump, run, etc., or se baigner when it refers to leisure activities as go for a walk, read, play tennis, and as such often has the form of to go swimming (ibid.).
In terms of SYNTAX, (ibid., 249) during modulation requirements of syntactic structures, besides those of metalingustic information, need to be ful lled as well (e.g. one word class changing into another).is points to its double motivation, for example, (ibid., 41) FR EN: Donnez un peu de votre sang Give a pint of your blood. 4If the focus is on grammatical changes, modulation might be viewed as transposition; in fact, Van Hoof perceives modulation as a type of transposition at a global level that involves categories of thought and not only grammatical categories. 5Overall, he suggests comprehending modulation as an extralinguistic phenomenon (1989,126).
Vinay and Darbelnet believe that modulation is motivated by metalinguistic information and demands a skilful translator be able to recognize the need to change a point of view in the TL text.ey assign these requirements to the level of the MESSAGE since it has to correspond to the source-text situation, e.g.FR remplir is not the appropriate translation of EN to ll when in relation to gastronomic satisfaction, as in Coca-Cola refreshes without lling, which cannot be translated literally, but has been skilfully translated into La boisson légère, qui rafraîchit! e authors emphasize that "these cultural taboos force translators into changes of the point of view which cannot be justi ed semantically or syntactically and which therefore are not felt by target language speakers with the same impact" (1995,.
Apart from modulations perceived through the three planes of expression, the authors also di erentiate between free or optional and obligatory or xed modulations.With xed modulation the translator, being well-versed in both languages, shows his/her awareness of the expression's frequency of use, its overall acceptance and the fact that it can be veri ed in a dictionary or grammar, e.g. e time when... is translated into French as Le moment où... as the only option available to coincide with the English original.
In optional modulation there are translation equivalents not xed and limited by usage, e.g.apart from the EN It is not di cult to show translated by FR Il est facile de démontrer (the type of modulation which turns a negative SL expression into a positive TL expression) (ibid., 37), the word-for-word translation of FR Il n'est pas di cile is equally possible.
However, the fact that the translator is aiming at a single solution in the TL rendering and that this then becomes the only solution that translator can use makes the line between xed and optional modulation somewhat blurry.In addition, when this solution is used often enough 4 Apart from modulation, Vinay and Darbelnet mention other translation procedures, such as borrowing, calque, literal translation, equivalence, adaptation and transposition (1995,36).The last of these "involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message" and can be used in a monolingual setting, e.g.FR Il a annoncé qu'il reviendrait can be restructured by transposing a subordinate verb with a noun, as in Il a annoncé son retour, or in a bilingual one, where transposition (as is modulation) is either obligatory or optional.An example of the former is FR D s son lever translated literally (but also transposed) into EN As soon as he gets / got up, while the latter can be observed in FR Apr s qu'il sera revenu either with no change in grammatical categories, as in EN After he comes back, or it can be transposed into After his return.The translation procedures can overlap in some cases, e.g.translation of paper weight by presse papiers is a case of fixed transposition as well as of fixed modulation (ibid., 40-2).

5
Salkie argues that many authors agree with the concept of different grammatical forms expressing the same meaning, while there are some who believe that a change in form may result in a change in meaning.With transposition, there is also a problem of identifying the same grammatical categories across different languages.While the English noun and French noun can fall into the same category, it might not be so in terms of e.g.auxiliary verb or subordinating conjunctions, let alone if compared to a non-European language (2001,. to be recognized, for example, by comparing bilingual texts, or from discussions at linguistic conferences, it may become xed (ibid.). 6 ere is also 'a new look at modulation,' as Salkie (2001, 433-41) entitled his article stemming from Vinay and Darbelnet's theory, which is a step forward in terms of attributing some new qualities to this procedure.He perceives modulation as a situation in which a source text is translated in many di erent ways in the target text, and has adopted the position of perceiving modulation as types of relationship between two texts; he attempts to do so by focusing on features of texts instead of the activities that produced them.He draws on the principles of contrastive analysis based on corpus analysis of a large number of texts (of the chosen languages) where he examines modulation.
In order to aptly present modulation, he relies on the principles of Relevance eory, 7 modulation being perceived "as a relation between two texts such that they yield the same mental representation but via a di erent process of interpretation" (ibid., 439).
Salkie ponders over the issue of "change in viewpoint" and "the same situation" throughout his paper.He indicates that in some cases it is tempting to equate the same situation with the same meaning, as in: FR Complet.translated by EN No vacancies.He suggests that (Cet hôtel est) complet in a particular context entails ( is hotel has no vacancies) and vice versa.However, it is not obvious that we have a two-way entailment in every case, as in e.g.EN You can have it.translated by FR Ja vous la laisse 8 (ibid., 435-6).
Similar to Newmark, he lists the types of modulations mentioned by Vinay and Darbelnet, but adds two more presented by Chesterman (1997, 103-4)  9 that are "good examples of a translator arriving at the same message using di erent means, which is one way of conceiving of modulation" (ibid., 436-7).ese examples include: Converses, which represent the same state of a airs from opposing viewpoints, such as buy and sell.
Paraphrase, in which certain elements of meaning are disregarded in order to capture the overall sense of a larger unit, as in GER Wenn Sie sich entschließen, die Vorteile zu nutzen … translated into EN If you decide to become a member of the scheme … (ibid., 436).
Another way in which Salkie (ibid., 437) interprets modulation is by placing it side by side with transposition.Transposition involves grammatical resources available in the target text and focuses on how the TL would naturally express a particular span of text, whereas "with modulation the principal consideration is the events or states of a airs that the words refer to" and the translator is interested in how a speaker of the TL would naturally conceive of it.
6 This is only possible when the expression can be codified in dictionaries or grammars and is regularly taught (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995, 37).7 Salkie points out that the theory was elaborated by Sperber and Wilson (1995) and discussed within translation theory by Gutt (1991).

LANGUAGE
is idea certainly unveils a new approach to modulation and, when compared to Vinay and Darbelnet, is closer to the concept of modulation described in the next section.Moreover, Salkie carried out an empirical research using translation corpora in order to further examine modulation and nd parameters or patterns by which it could be recognized.
For him corpus is a means to observing or counting inventive translations where the expression of the SL is not rendered in the way that we would expect in the TL.In his view, inventive translations are divided into translationally unsystematic ones that are devised anew each time, and translationally systematic ones that may occur regularly with translation A being selected in particular contexts and translation B in others.Salkie is only interested in translationally systematic types, since by establishing which contexts regularly favour translation A as opposed to translation B, we can nd out something about the linguistic systems of the compared languages.
To support his ideas, Salkie lists several examples from the INTERSECT corpus showing di erent ways of translating by: the expected equivalent, which is NOT the case of modulation as in, e.g.FR Et puis d'abord quand il a bien bu et bien mangé le convive, il est facilement convaincu.translated by And anyway, when he has eaten and drunk well, the other fellow is easily convinced., 10 where focusing on FR bien, we come across its EN expected translation equivalent of well (ibid., 438).modulation as two-way entailment, or equating the same situation with the same meaning, e.g.FR Cette visite s'est déroulée par petits groups, a n que tous puissent observer les diverses tâches qui sont accomplies dans ce laboratoire; le personnel de ce laboratoire a bien montré et expliqué les divers traitments de conservation et de restauration qu'il donne aux documents.rendered as EN e tours were conducted in small groups so that all could observe the various activities taking place, and the sta of the Laboratory did an excellent job of demonstrating and explaining the di erent conservation and restoration treatments they were performing., 11 where FR bien corresponds to EN did an excellent job of (ibid., 439).modulation as the same situation described from a di erent point of view (where it is di cult to establish the complete identity of meaning), e.g.FR On me permettra de souligner que le Canada a bien rempli son rôle dans le vaste e ort international... rendered as EN Let me stress that Canada has been playing a full role in the broad international e ort..., 12 in which case FR bien + verb correspond to EN adjective full modifying the object of the verb in English.e two versions do not appear to mutually entail each other, but still refer to the same state of a airs (ibid.). is categorization leads to considering the impact of relevance theory where the translator's aim is to produce a text in the TL which, in the appropriate context, would make it possible for the reader to construct a mental representation that resembles the one created by the reader of the source text.Consequently, "two texts can have di erent semantic representations but yield the same mental representation".is notion proves simple when applied to corpus examples where we are certain whether two texts are identical or di erent in meaning.However, when we have trouble in deciding on the meaning, relevance theory enables us to nd support in the idea that the source text and target text are the same at the level of mental representations (ibid., 439-40).
is gives way to a new concept of modulation.
Salkie has certainly come up with compelling ideas about modulation, and extended its use in order to de ne it in more detail or at a more abstract level.Modulation as such can no longer be taken merely as one of the translation procedures, but as a gradual process that owing to the translator's knowledge and inventiveness leads to its place in a linguistic system.

Modulation: Plurality of TL Options
Even though Salkie furthered the existing theory on modulation, the di erence between two interpretations and this one is quite obvious.e former is interested in nding one optimum translation equivalent and does not even suggest alternatives, whereas the latter depends on the existence and availability of at least two options for a single word combination (collocation in this case) of the SL. is modulation strives for an atypical manner of expression in language or contradicts to what is natural in language and uses a pragmatic approach rather than translational one.
Modulation of this type thus stands for a process where a particular English collocation forming part of the SL text is translated by two or more Slovene translation equivalents; for example, and as mentioned, the English extended collocation had a profound e ect in the context of [..., he was struck by how little most of us know about these years, which had such a profound e ect on American political and social life...] (McGrath 2010, 1) has been/can be translated not only by SL imela globok učinek, but also imela velik/močan učinek, velik/močan/globok vpliv, and so močno/globoko zaznamovala, pustila velik/močan/globok pečat, močno/globoko vplivala. 13Appendix 1 consisting of the preceding Slovene translation equivalents shows search results for individual core or key words and their collocates in terms of how often they appear together.e Slovene noun učinek and its collocate globok are actually used together only in seven cases and when considered together as a unit (globok učinek) immediately preceded by imela in FidaPLUS (or the in nitive form of imeti 14 in Slovene), it occurs only once.Velik učinek and močan učinek have a signi cantly higher frequency than globok učinek.Moreover, velik vpliv and močan vpliv are even more frequent.Overall, the adjective globok premodifying the nouns vpliv and učinek is the least frequent of the adjectives in the tables; however it proves quite frequent in combination with pečat (74 occurrences) and as an adverb of zaznamovati (61).ese results could be explored even further and possibly lead to another linguistic research in relation to, for example, in/ appropriateness or optimality measured among the Slovene equivalents.However, not in this case -the results obtained in FidaPLUS are here only to con rm the existence of the listed 13 All of which occur in FidaPLUS corpus of the Slovene language (see Appendix 1). 14 The extended units of vpliv/učinek with imeti and pečat with pustiti are also listed in the Appendix 1; in addition, some parameters had to be set for a reliable data representation, for example, excluding all comparative or superlative forms of adjectives (e.g., globlji, večji).
Slovene translation equivalents and to emphasize their number as generates from a single English collocation.is plurality of TL options is termed modulation and in order to nd its source and outline how it functions, some parameters need to be set.
ere are three ways in which such modulation can be interpreted, as it can be viewed as a result of either: 1. collocation as a (semantically) "scattered" unit allowing translation variation (more than one translation equivalent) 15 in the TL that is also considered as minimum context (e.g. to make a move) and extended minimum context (e.g. to make a sudden move)

co-text and the collocation
3. TL situation based on the inventory of lexical choices as shown in existing resources (texts, dictionaries, grammars, corpora) or as a consequence of associations, accumulated skills, etc.

Collocation
is heading is intended to highlight the key concepts involved and processes that contribute to modulation in the TL.
Collocation is considered a multi-word unit that is "loosely" xed, is mostly binary, occurs frequently and carries a literal (compositional) meaning (Gabrovšek 2000, 198).ere are several interpretations of collocation, the most general being "any more or less common and grammatical co-occurrence of words and phrases" (ibid., 199).From the semantic point of view, collocation can be observed in terms of lexical sets 16 to which the collocates constituting it belong.Lexical sets are "non-arbitrary strings of items characterized by a shared common range of meaning, a shared common factor of denotation, and by belonging to the same word class or having a similar grammatical function", as in, for example, She is riding a horse, where horse belongs to a set that includes bicycle, motorbike, scooter, and also hobby-horse, dolphin, camel, elephant (Lord 1994, 79-80). 17  Moreover, collocations have to abide by particular selection restrictions and collocational (combinability) preferences (cf.semantic clash).For example, we use glacial lake and not e.g.*glacial age, where we cannot argue for semantic restrictions, as can be observed in the cases of rancid being combined with a limited set of nounsbutter/lard/oil, but perceive it as usagebased, possibly having to do with frequency also (Gabrovšek 2005, 211). is issue can also be discussed in terms of lexical and semantic collocations, the former being usage-based and the latter semantically motivated (ibid., 210).

15
One must be aware that not all English collocations cause variation in TL, e.g.(Krek et al. eds. 2005, 867) heavy traffic=gost promet.
16 Lipka (2002, 173) describes "lexical set as a cover term for all paradigmatically related groups of words which cannot be described by purely linguistic methods.On the syntagmatic level, this is paralleled by the term collocation.Lexical sets are based either on association and intuition, or on objectively verifiable extralinguistic relationships captured by encyclopedic knowledge.They are often highly culturespecific and closely connected with the modern notions of prototype and categorization" (cited in Gabrovšek 2005, 157).17 Cited in Gabrovšek 2000, 199.
In pursuit of nding the connection between collocation and modulation, it is possible to compare single-word units to their synonymous multi-word units and related extended multi-word units, 18 as in, for example, to discover vs. to make a discovery vs. to make a chilling/ startling discovery=Odkriti vs. priti do odkritja/priti do šokantnega/nenadnega/srhljivega odkritja/z grozo odkriti… e number of possible translation choices is increasing in proportion to the number of collocates being added to the base word on the syntagmatic axis.e same is observed in the case of profound e ect above which needs a verbal category of have (had) in this context and thus acquires the status of an extended multi-word unit and allows variation on the syntagmatic axis, e.g. have + a profound/signi cant/strong/dramatic/powerful/etc. 19+ e ect.
Binary and extended collocations might also be regarded as presenting the minimum context 22 (e.g.profound e ect) and extended minimum context (e.g. had a profound e ect) of the base that 'allows' modulation to happen. is concept stems from the assumption that the collocate/s of the base word create a situation from which TL variation might arise, there still being restrictions in terms of the pattern the collocates need to follow on the syntagmatic axis as well as the limited set which they can belong to.
However, the context of collocation might not su ce to explain modulation in full, and the answers could thus be sought in the co-text of collocation -textual exploration going beyond the minimum context or extended minimum context.

Co-Text
According to Halliday (1985, 76), a linguistic unit examined in a text is found in two environmentsthe extra-linguistic one or the context, which is important for the whole text, as well as in the linguistic environment or the co-text, de ned as "the language accompanying the linguistic unit under focus".
18 Gabrovšek (2005, 89) observes that in English there appears to be a sort of progression in certain cases from e.g. the "simple" collocation to make a discovery to the "composite" collocation to make a chilling discovery, the latter appearing also as part of a larger pattern somebody + to make + a chilling discovery + that-clause.

19
Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (Crowther, J., Dignen, S., Lea, D. et al. eds. 2002, 249).20 Gabrovšek (2000, 188) refers to idioms as "relatively frozen or fixed and semantically non-transparent -or, more technically, semantically opaque, non-compositional, non-motivated or holistic -word combinations of varying length", e.g. to move heaven and earth -'to try hard to achieve something', but also to take place, at all, in fact.Some can be taken in their literal sense, e.g. to skate on thin ice, be my guest!, in which case they are no longer to be considered as idioms but as collocations or even free combinations.

22
A similar view has already been put forward by Gabrovšek (2005, 172), who states that "collocations should perhaps be regarded as instances of typical, recurrent minimum contexts, the smallest complex syntagmatic sequences showing vital combinability patterns in a language".
For Dash (2008, 21-2), context is the "immediate linguistic environment" in which a particular word is found.He explores the role of context in meaning variation of a word when used in a piece of text.In order to examine this interdependence, he classi es context into four types and in the following order: local,23 sentential, topical and global context.Local context (ibid., 23-5) involves "the immediate environment of the KW in a sentence where it has occurred, encompassing its immediately preceding and succeeding words".KW stands for key word, i.e. a base word, preceded by LW1 (left word) and immediately succeeded by RW1 (right word), all together constituting a lexical block.Dash believes that local context reveals information of whether the key word has any idiomatic relation to its neighbouring members and that it proves "useful for understanding lexical collocation of words used in a lexical block." 24In this view, parallels between local context and collocation as minimum and extended minimum context could be drawn.
Furthermore, Dash argues that local context o ers the most important information concerning the contextual meaning of a word; however, in most cases it does not provide enough information to capture the actual meaning of the key word.In such instances we resort to sentential context (ibid., 26-7) that refers to the sentence where the key word is found and assigns it syntactic importance in terms of the key word having implicit or explicit syntactic relations with the other words of the same sentence.is type of context enables us to explore whether there is any variation of meaning of the key word because of its relation to the other words located at distant places within the sentence.e next step includes topical context (ibid., 27-8) that concerns "the topic of discussion and focuses on the content of a piece of text".Dash believes that we ought to extract necessary information from the topic to keep track of the change in meaning of the key word.
Finally, we might have to refer to global context described as extralinguistic environment of the key word, (Allan 2001, 20)  25 the meaning of which can be obtained only by considering information from the external world, such as details about the place, time, interpretation, pragmatics, discourse, culture, society, etc. Seeing that global context is interpreted as building up the cognitive interface between language and reality, we consider it when dealing with questions of who says, what is said, when it is said, etc.(Dash 2008, 28-9).
is classi cation makes it easier to pinpoint which segment of context is a ecting modulation and to what extent.However, as the title of this section suggests, only co-text is accounted for in reference to modulation, as can be examined and supported by evidence.e e ects of everything beyond co-text, that is, extralinguistic knowledge or global context, as Dash refers to it, might contribute to modulation, but due to the large area it covers and the data it provides (usually) outside the realms of the written text, it remains disregarded throughout this study.
For practical purposes, let us return yet again to had a profound e ect in the sentence of Daniel Okrent, a former public editor for e New York Times, who has just published a history of the period, "Last Call: e Rise and Fall of Prohibition," said that when he began his research, he was struck by how little most of us know about these years, which had such a profound e ect on American political and social life (McGrath 2010, 1).e plurality of TL options (imela globok učinek, velik/močan učinek, velik/močan/globok vpliv, and so močno/globoko zaznamovala, pustila velik/močan/globok pečat, močno/globoko vplivala) results from the local context or extended minimum context in this case, since, as can be observed, none of the equivalents in their semantic and syntactic character have been sought outside the context of collocation and its interpretation.e co-text being a relatively di cult factor with reference to modulation, modulation could also result from the TL situation itself, being due to the translator's inventiveness on the one hand and his/her knowledge based on grammars, dictionaries and his/her professional training or experiences gathered throughout the years.

TL Situation of Two or More Slovene Translation Equivalents
e idea of modulation being entirely due to TL situation might work only from the viewpoint of the level of knowledge or expertise in mastering the Slovene language one possesses and intuition.e Slovene equivalent pustila velik pečat, for example, is more gurative than not and diverges signi cantly from the literal translation of imela globok učinek.Still, the equivalents remain restricted to the SL situation in terms of causing modulation; the TL situation might be perceived only as a process following modulation, where the translator is left with choices and is compelled to opt for the optimum one.is is no longer the issue of modulation.

Conclusions
According to Vinay and Darbelnet, modulation involves perceiving SL situation from a di erent point of view, usually necessary only if the translation appeared unusual or strange (1995,36).While, though admitting to the change in point of view, Salkie points to the di culty in trying to de ne it.Hence he provides examples supporting the various functions or roles of modulation, either as the two-way entailment, that is, the same meaning equated with the same situation, or with the same situation presented in a di erent way.His dilemmas of whether we are faced with the same situation or not are resolved with the help of relevance theory (2001,439), which views modulation as a relation between two texts such that they result in the same mental representation, but by a di erent process of interpretation.Salkie's view not only provides a profound insight into understanding modulation, but also highlights its potential to be applied to di erent concepts in linguistic research.In this study, modulation is interpreted as the occurrence of two or more Slovene translation equivalents available for a single English collocation, as has been examined thrice in the example of had a profound e ect translated by imela globok učinek and also imela velik/močan učinek, velik/močan/ globok vpliv, and so močno/globoko zaznamovala, pustila velik/močan/globok pečat, močno/globoko vplivala.
In an attempt to pinpoint what exactly causes this, or brings it about, three potential inducers have been suggested: collocation as a semantic unit by itself, collocation in the function of minimum as well as extended minimum context, and nally the co-text and TL situation.
Translator's skills and knowledge of their mother language are the two elements of TL situation that might be related to modulation.e co-text and context, for example, are constant companions of any linguistic unit and to what extent they are taken to be a veri able in uence depends on the type of research we are conducting.If, however, collocation is considered a cotext, 26 its nature can be accounted for together with its loosely xed structure allowing variation on the syntagmatic axis (e.g. have every/little/no/some con dence, or bolster/boost/build (up)/ enhance/improve/increase/lift/raise con dence 27 ) which can be observed in the progression from single-word units to multi-word units and extended multi-word units, as in e.g.check vs. have/make/run a check vs. have/make/run a careful/close check 28 =pregled/kontrola/preverjanje and natančno/pazljivo 29 preveriti/pregledati. 30   Another relevant modulation-related assumption is that non-metaphorical collocations can result in more variation in TL than the metaphorical ones, as in non-metaphorical e.g.careful/ close check=natančen/temeljit pregled/kontrola/preverjanje vs. to hold onself in check 31 =obvladati se.
Furthermore, if collocation is taken to be a minimum context or extended minimum context of a particular linguistic item under investigation and as such enough (i.e. the overall meaning can be discerned form collocation alone) to provide modulation, the e ects of co-text as sentential, topical context and global context could be disregarded (as in had a profound e ect above); this, however, does not imply that this should always be the case.
Collocation has been examined extensively in the literature, and there remain a number of issues either pertaining to its status in phraseology, its varying length, or how it a ects translation.Modulation could thus also be perceived as one of the means that might contribute to clarifying the complex apparatus of collocation.

26
Or local context (see above).

27
Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (Crowther, J., Dignen, S., Lea, D. et al. eds. 2002, 149) As the result of a corpus research, the adjective močen is shown in the base form, which does not imply that this is the only form we can nd it in.erefore, the results for močan are included separately. .