BHADARWAHI: A TYPOLOGICAL SKETCH

This paper is a summary of some phonological and morphosyntactice features of the Bhadarwahi language of Indo-Aryan family. Bhadarwahi is a lesser known and less documented language spoken in district of Doda of Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir State in India. Typologically it is a subject dominant language with an SOV word order (SV if without object) and its verb agrees with a noun phrase which is not followed by an overt post-position. These noun phrases can move freely in the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence. The indirect object generally precedes the direct object. Aspiration, like any other Indo-Aryan languages, is a prominent feature of Bhadarwahi. Nasalization is a distinctive feature, and vowel and consonant contrasts are commonly observed. Infinitive and participle forms are formed by suffixation while infixation is also found in causative formation. Tense is carried by auxiliary and aspect and mood is marked by the main verb.


Introduction
Bhadarwahi language is spoken (Indo-European family group language) in the region of Bhadarwah (the ancient name Bhaderkasi) of Doda district in eastern part of Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir state in India. This district is surrounded by Anantnag district of Kashmir on its north, Kishtwar district in the northeast, Chamba area of Himachal Pradesh in the south, Kathua district in the south, Udhampur district in the southwest and Ramban district in the west. Siraji is also a major language of Doda district, but it is spoken mainly in Doda town and its surrounding villages. The population of Doda district in Jammu and Kashmir was 409,576 in 2011 according to census of India, out of which, 52.0% were males and 48.0% were females. Bhadarwahi speakers' population in 2011 was 250, 000 approximate.
The standard Bhadarwahi is spoken in the Bhadarwah town of Doda district of Jammu & Kashmir state of the Republic of India. This language shows lexical similarity with Pangwali, Siraji, Padri, and Bhalesi languages. SIL International in 2009 documentation for Bhadarwahi identified Bhadarwahi as bhd.

Bhadarwahi under Western Pahari Languages
Bhadarwahi language comes under Northern Zone Western Pahari languages. The word 'pahari' (hilly) has been derived from Hindi word 'pahar' (mountain). Western Pahari is a cluster of 17 different languages which are spoken in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, Madya Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh regions. The word order of Bhadarhawi language is SOV. Out of these 17 Western Pahari languages Bhattiyali, Bilaspuri, Chambeali, Churhahi, Hinduri, Kangari, Kinnauri, Mandeali, Pahari-Mahasu, Pahari-Kullu, Sirmauri, and Pangwali are spoken in Himachal Pradesh state of India; and Gaddi is spoken in 6 Indian states namely Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttar Pradesh; and Dogri is spoken in Jammu of Jammu and Kashmir state; and Jaunsari is spoken in Uttarakhand state; and Pahari-Potwari is spoken in Pakistan and Kashmir state.

People and language
The origin of Bhadarwahi can be traced back to the ancient time when Jammu and Kashmir was a Hindu (majority of the population was the follower of Hindu religion) state. As Buddhism started to spread around 400 BC in this region, the Buddhist priests searched a language other than Sanskrit to spread the teachings of Buddha.
Buddhists adapted Pahari as a language of their preachings and various scripts were introduced to write the language such as Duggal, etc.
This was the climax of Pahari language. However, with the fall of Buddhism and again with the rise of Hinduism in Kashmir proved to be a fall of Pahari language. Pahari language was abandoned and it remained at the mercy of the local people.
Bhadarwah is also known as 'Nagon ki Bhoomi' (land of snakes). The Bhadarwah town was known as Hettary Nagar and prior to that, there were other towns namely Donga and Udho Nagar. Both the nagars were situated around the villages which is about 3 kms in the east of present Bhadarwah town.
The poets and singers such as Kailash Mehra Sadhu, Bashir Ahmed Mastana, Ghulam Nabi Goni, Basir Charag, and Master Dina Nath are mainly responsible for the development of the oral culture of this language. Bhadarwah tehsil has its own radio station. Bhadarwah programme is broadcasted on each Sunday at 8'o clock on local radio station.

Previous Studies
In 1916, Sir George Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. VIII, Part-I) made a mention of Bhadarwahi as one of the dialects of Kashmiri. He observes that the Kashmiri language is the language of the Valley of Kashmir. In a dialect form it has spread south-west into the valley of Kashtwar, and to the south it has flowed over the Pir Panjal Range into the lower hills lying north of the river Chinab, where it reappears in a number of mixed dialects (such as Bhaderwahi, Kishtwar, Siraji, Poguli and Rambani). In 2013, Dwivedi documented this language in the descriptive grammar tradition.

Consonants
There are 37 consonants sounds in the Bhadarwahi language. The eight points of articulation are attested, viz. bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal. There appears distinctive voicing and aspiration in this language. Aspiration is a prominent feature of this language; twelve consonant sounds show this feature. The palatal nasal sound occurs only in the word middle position and nasal velar sound occurs in the word middle and the word final position. Bhadarwahi has a palatal fricative sound ç which is not found in Hindi and Dogri.

Bi-labial Dental Alveolar Post-alv. Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Lateral approx. l consonant) at word middle position, sk: nəskwɑr 'a local tobacco' and sr: nɑsri 'a name of a place'.

Intonation
There are four major types of intonational patterns in Bhadarwahi language. They are: high-fall, high-rise, rise-and-fall, and mid-level. The vowel is the obligatory element, whereas the consonants are optional. The nucleus is always occupied by the vowels whereas onset and positions are occupied by consonants. The coda position can have up to three consonants, but the onset position can have up to two consonants

Morphology
Bhadarwahi allows prefixing, suffixing and infixing. Prefixation and suffixation are employed in derivational and inflectional morphology where as infixation converts a verb into a causative verb. I will be presenting the morphology into four subsections, viz. nouns and nominal morphology, adjectives, verb morphology and adverbs and other categories.

Nouns and nominal morphology
Bhadarwahi nouns are inflected for gender, number, and case by morphosyntactic categories. Nouns are masculine or feminine, and count or non-count. All nouns in Bhadarwahi are assigned a grammatical gender, which may or may not coincide with natural gender e.g. pəkkʰo 'fan' is masculine; andəç 'eye' is feminine. The distribution of gender to inanimate objects is arbitrary, i.e. any inanimate object may get either masculine or feminine gender and we can't reason why we are assigning either masculine or feminine to them. Human and animal nouns sometimes have a single lexical form which represents both the genders as in kaw 'crow', dlɑɡ 'cheetah', bəcco 'kid', etc. A borrowed noun from a foreign language also takes only one form to represent either of the genders e.g. ɡrɑunɖ 'ground'. Common nouns inflect for gender, number and case. Proper nouns are assigned to specific gender categories and remain the same in all numbers and cases.
Bhadarwahi has two genders: masculine and feminine. Both animate nouns and inanimate nouns get a gender. According to Masica (1991: 219): "In the New Indo-Aryan…gender is an inherent and classificatory property of one class of words (nouns) and a variable or inflectional property of others (adjectives, certain verbal forms, sometimes pronouns and adverbs), and one extremely important postpositions."Assigning gender to nouns is arbitrary. Abstract nouns generally do not inflect for numbers with some exception, but concrete nouns inflect. Non-count concrete nouns are used with partatives e.g. the gender formation involves two processes: (a) suffixation, and (b) phonological changes (suppletion, etc.).

Size and Gender
The size of the things is also responsible for assigning gender, e.g. pəhɑɽ 'mountain' is masculine, whereas pəhɑɽi 'small-mountain' is feminine.

Number and Case
In Bhadarwahi every noun has six forms that change according to the number (singular and plural) and case (nominative, oblique, and vocative). The forms of some of these look similar but they have different functions in a sentence. The nominative case is related to the subject, the vocative case is for addressing, and the postposition comes after the noun and it includes all the other cases under the heading oblique. Consider the masculine singular noun məʈʈʰu 'boy': For the word məʈʈʰu 'boy' the nominative plural and the oblique singular have a same form məʈʈʰe, the oblique plural and the vocative singular have the same form məʈʈʰɑ, and the nominative singular and the vocative plural have the meʈʈʰu and məʈʈʰo forms respectively. As we can see vowel alteration is also a process in addition to suffixation in the Bhadarwahi language.

Adjectives
Adjectives as qualifiers are of two types: variable and invariant. Variable inflects for number and gender; invariant remains same for number and gender. Adjectives, in direct form, end in /o/ in singular masculine gender, and /i/ in singular feminine gender.

Variable
For rətɽo 'red':  Cardinals are numeral quantifiers used for counting. They are invariable in nature and they do not inflect for number and gender. Ordinals are used to show rank or ordering. They are formed by suffixation of /ʃəũ/ to the base form. The feminine form shows /ʃĩ/ suffixation, such as 10th: dəʃəũ, 20th: bijəũ, 30th: ʈlijəũ and 40th: çelijəũ. The multiplicatives are formed by suffixation 'ɡəɳ' (which may inflect for person and gender) to cardinal numerals such as: 2 times: du + ɡəɳo = duɡəɳo, 3 times:ʈli + ɡəɳo= ʈliɡəɳo, etc.

Pronouns
Pronouns are often used to refer to a noun that has already been mentioned. Pronoun morphoplogy is connected with the different forms of pronons, gender, number, animacy, and deictic categories. Figure 4 shows personal pronouns.      Figure 6 shows relative pronouns.

Verbs and verb morphology
The verb is the heart of a sentence. It tells us about the time and nature of the event.
The nature of nominal expressions (requires one nominal expression or two) is determined by a verb. In imperative the subject remains elliptical but recoverable from the verb. Lexical verbs, conjunct verbs, auxiliary verbs, and compound verbs are discussed below. Following are the examples: The base form kʰə 'eat' admits the following forms:

Feminine kʰə kʰɑtʰ
The habitual form (by imperfective) is generated by the addition of a base /t/ to which is added the gender and number suffixes: o, ɑe, i, and ie. Thus, the base form kʰə 'eat' admits the following:

Feminine kʰɑti kʰɑtie
The habitual aspect has these verbal forms: X-to, X-ti, and X-te where X is the verbal root. X-to form comes with masculine first person singular əũ 'I', with masculine third person singular (or any noun person) te 'he', and with masculine second person tu 'you'. X-ti form comes with feminine first person singular əũ 'I', with feminine third person singular (or any noun person) te 'she', with feminine first person plural, and with feminine second person tu 'you.' X-te form comes with masculine first person plural, masculine second person plural/honorific and masculine third person plural. But we find variations in the auxiliaries of above mentioned X-to, X-ti, and X-te verbal form for habitual aspect. The following table precisely captures this difference: The perfective form is generated by the addition of a base /ɑ/ to which is added the gender and number suffixes: u, i, and u when the verb agrees with the subject.

Singular Plural
When the verb agrees with object (feminine):

Feminine kʰɑi kʰei
When the verb agrees with object (masculine):

Compound verbs
In Bhadarwahi when two verbal elements are used to express a single meaning; it is constructed by a compound verb. The first verb in the verbal carries the primary meaning or the main meaning (semantic), and the second verb only modifies the primary verb. The second verb marks for number, person, and gender (grammatical), and the first verb comes in the non-honorific imperative invariant form.
14. In (14) the verb bʰoto 'to happen' is intransitive, but the compound verb bʰoi ɡɑ:to 'to happen' in (15) gives it a special suggestive meaning which cannot be expressed by the (14). In (16) the compound verb shows an immediacy of action, and in (17) it shows the completion of an action.
18. tu klɑ:si mə rə dʒəldi nissi edʒɑ you.II.SG class in from early pass come.IMP 'You come from the class early.' Generally the compound verb with edʒəɳo 'to come' directs two actions the first verb carries the main meaning and the second verb includes suggestiveness to the meaning.

Conjunct verb
This consists of a noun or an adjective and a verbal element such as: zəbɑ:n deɳi 'to promise' (literal meaning is 'to give tongue'), hətʰ deɳo 'to marry' (literal meaning is 'to give hand') and dɑ:n deɳo 'to donate' (literal meaning is 'to donate').
The behavior of conjunct verbs can be compared with English phrasal verbs i.e. they are metaphorical in meaning. The conjunct verbs are employed in the following sentences where they give the metaphorical meaning: In sentence (24) the verb agrees with the masculine singular noun kʰijɑ:l 'care', and in (25) kʰijɑ:l 'care' agrees with the verbal complex rəkʰo ɡɑ:toɑe.

Auxiliary verbs
In Bhadarwahi the auxiliary verbs are used to mark present and past, they are of two types: base /tʰ/ (in present tense) which inflects for the gender and number suffixes: /ɑ/ and /ə/, and u, ie, i, and i: (in past tense) which inflects for the gender and number suffixes: e and ən. The future tense is marked on the main verb by base /l/ which inflects for the gender and number: o, e, i, and i:.

Singular Plural
Masculine ɑe ən The presumptive form is with a base /bʰo/ inflects for the gender and number suffixes: o, e, i, and i:.

Verb Inflection
Bhadarwahi verbs exhibit the following inflection:

Basic syntax
Bhadarwahi simple sentence is a combination of subject and predicate. A simple sentence consists of one main clause only. The predicate of a sentence contains the verb (it optionally consists of objects also) and gives information about the subject. The predicate is typically the structure that follows the subject.

Word order
Bhadarwahi is a subject dominant language with an SOV word order (SV if without object). Its subject comes in the first place, an object comes in the middle, and the verb comes in the final position.
26. səritɑ dʒəmoro-dud kʰɑ:ti ɑe Sarita frozen-milk.O eat.IMPF Aux.PRST 'Sarita eats curd.' The subject sərita 'Sarita' comes first in the sentence. The object dʒəməro-dudə 'curd' comes in the middle, and verb kʰɑ:ti ae 'eats' comes in the last. In English the order of object and verb is inverted from OV to VO. Here the verb kʰɑ:ti ae 'eats' agrees with the subject sərita 'Sarita', and it is without an overt case-marker. We can also write the sentence (26)  The word order in Bhadarwahi is flexible to an explanation for the subject and the object. The word order of an assertive, negative, interrogative, and imperative remain different from each other. The changes in person, number, gender, case, aspect, tense, and mood are also observed in the Bhadarwahi language.

Subject-verb agreement
Bhadarwahi verb agrees with a noun phrase which is not followed by an overt postposition. Unless there is a post-position after the subject of a sentence, the verb will agree with the subject in person, number and gender. The subject NP triggers the agreement. Consider the following sentences:

27.
bepu dʒi hər beri vaiʃənu dewi ɡa:te ən father HON every year Vaishno Devi go.IMPF AUX.PRST.PL 'Father visits Vaishno Devi every year.' The subject is third person singular honorific bepu dʒi 'father' in (27) and the verb is accordingly marked plural ɡɑ:te 'go', and the auxiliary ən marks tense and plural, and it also shows that honorific singular subjects are marked plural.

28.
mohən kəne səlmɑ peni sei kʰeɖi rəore ən Mohan and Salma water from play live.PROG AUX.PRST.PL 'Mohan and Salma are playing with water.' The subject in (28) has two III person singular nouns mohən 'Mohan' and səlmɑ 'Salma'conjunct with kəne 'and', which constitute a plural subject. The verb and auxiliary (a tense marker) is marked plural accordingly. 29. mɑ:sʈər dʒi bəɽe bəle zote ən teacher HON very slowly say AUX.PRST.PL 'The teacher speaks very slowly.' The subject in (29) is a third person singular honorific and the verb and auxiliary (a tense marker) is marked plural (honorific gets a plural verb form). The modifier bəɽe 'very' and adverb bəle 'slowly' agrees with the verb zote 'say'.

30.
tus hər dihɑ:ɽe tesere kɑ: ɡɑ:te ətʰ you.2.SG daily day him near go AUX.PRST 'You go to him every day.' The subject in (30) is a second person singular pronoun. Bhadarwahi has three different words for second person reflecting politeness hierarchy like Hindi. They are: tu 'you' (an impolite form), tus 'you' (more polite), and tusɑ'you' similar to ɑp 'you' in Hindi (the most polite) 31. səritɑ əĩ kukəɽi eri roʈʈi kʰəi Sarita ERG maize of chapatti eat.PST 'Sarita ate a chapatti made of maize.' As we can see in (31) that noun phrase sərita is followed by an overt post-position əĩ that is an ergative marker. The verb kʰəi 'ate' agrees with object-head roʈʈi 'chapatti. The object-head 'chapatti is a feminine noun and that's why we have verb form kʰəi 'ate' and not kʰəw 'ate' which is used for masculine.

Typological overview
The major typological features of the Bhadarwahi language have been summarized and presented in Table 9: Adjective-Head, the adjective follows the standard of comparison Verb affixes Mainly prefixing, also suffixing, infixing in causatives Agreement

Conclusion
The paper summarizes some grammatical features of the Bhadarwahi language. Due to prolonged contact with Hindi, Dogri and Kashmiri speakers, the natives of Doda and Bhadarwah have borrowed script and few lexical items from these languages. Despite this, Bhadawahi is a different language and the language does not show any mutual intelligibility with Dogri, Hindi and Kashmiri. However, other languages spoken it the region such as Pangwali, Siraji, Padri and Bhalesi show lexical similarity up to fifty to fifty five percent.