The Neolithic-Eneolithic sequence and pottery assemblages in the fifth millennium BC in north-eastern Slovenia

The study of the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods in north-eastern Slovenia (for an overview of the earlier part of the history of research, see Budja 1983) does not have a long tradition, in comparison with neighbouring countries, and this area consequently lacks knowledge and archaeological research of this era. Mainly due to archaeological research on the motorway network, only archaeological periods after the second half of the 5th millennium onwards in north-eastern Slovenia are relatively well-studied (i.e. the Lasinja Culture), while only individual pits, structures and finds from the end of the first half of the 5th millennium are known, and older settlement have not even been identified to date.1 The present research has therefore been focused on analyses of pottery and an assessment of selected north-eastern Slovenian settlements dating to the first and the second half of the 5th millennium BC. The settlements are located relatively close to one another, in an area which is also important in the interpretation of archaeological records elsewhere (primarily in Austria, Hungary and Croatia) due to its transitional location between the Alps and the Pannonian Plain. The settlement of Andrenci is located on a hill 335m high, called Andren∏ki vrh, in western Slovenske gorice. Stoperce is located in Haloze, along the Maj∏perk-Rogatec road, while Ptuj-πolski center, Zgornje Radvanje and Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica are ABSTRACT – This paper discusses the settlements at Andrenci, Stoperce, Ptuj-πolski center, Zgornje Radvanje and Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica, all located in north-eastern Slovenia. The settlements are dated on the basis of the results of radiocarbon analyses. The characteristics of the material and cultural-chronological site structures were studied through analyses of pottery (pottery production, form, decoration) and comparative analyses.


Introduction
The study of the Neolithic and Eneolithic periods in north-eastern Slovenia (for an overview of the earlier part of the history of research, see Budja 1983) does not have a long tradition, in comparison with neighbouring countries, and this area consequently lacks knowledge and archaeological research of this era.Mainly due to archaeological research on the motorway network, only archaeological periods after the second half of the 5 th millennium onwards in north-eastern Slovenia are relatively well-studied (i.e. the Lasinja Culture), while only individual pits, structures and finds from the end of the first half of the 5 th millennium are known, and older settlement have not even been identified to date. 1 1   The present research has therefore been focused on analyses of pottery and an assessment of selected north-eastern Slovenian settlements dating to the first and the second half of the 5 th millennium BC.The settlements are located relatively close to one another, in an area which is also important in the interpretation of archaeological records elsewhere (primarily in Austria, Hungary and Croatia) due to its transitional location between the Alps and the Pannonian Plain.The settlement of Andrenci is located on a hill 335m high, called Andren∏ki vrh, in western Slovenske gorice.Stoperce is located in Haloze, along the Maj∏perk-Rogatec road, while Ptuj-πolski center, Zgornje Radvanje and Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica are situated on the edge of the Drava plain (Fig. 1).
The 14 C analysis of charred food residues obtained from the inner surface of a vessel base from the top layer (B2) in structure B showed a conventional age of 5730±40 BP, which means that it dates between 4689 and 4466 calBC (95.4% probability) or (between) 4652 and 4505 calBC (68.2% probability).Pottery assemblages from Andrenci are typologically homogeneous (Pls.1-2), so it is possible to assume that both structures presented above were contemporaneous.4 4

Stoperce
Based on the results of 14 C analyses, analyses of stratigraphic sequences and analyses of pottery, it is possible to conclude that the area researched in 2009 was settled twice (Fig. 6).The first (earlier) phase is represented by Structure I, and the second by Structure III -area 2. At least three (II, IV and V) other structures were discovered.They did not contain pits with pottery, and absolute dates were not obtained.However, it seems that they belong to the second settlement phase, because smaller pits , ditches and post-holes were discovered in the vicinity which contained pottery comparable to pottery found in the pit from Structure III (compare with ; fragments of such vessels were also found in a thin cultural layer, stratigraphic unit (SE) 003, which was examined in isolated areas on top of the structure remains.
Structure I was single-spaced, partially deepened (pit SE 128) and, based on the distribution of post-holes, probably had a trapezoidal floor plan.The hollow/ pit was filled with a single layer which contained charcoal, burnt clay, fragments of Late Neolithic pottery vessels (Pl. 3) and individual stone tools (Fig. 7).The 14 C measurements of charcoal sample Beta-339594, gained from this layer showed a conventional age of 5690±30 BP, which means that it dates to the end of the first half or the turn of the first to the second half of the 5 th millennium BC, and that Structure I was contemporary with Structure B from Andrenci (Figs. [9][10]. Structure III, which represents the second settlement phase, was perhaps two-spaced.5 5 Area 1 was not deepened, and rare pottery fragments were discovered only in a thin cultural layer above the postholes.The central part of Area 2 was some 30cm deepened, with two cultural layers and a hearth detected in the pit itself (SE 150).The upper layer (layer 2) contained charcoal, burnt clay, a number of Early Eneolithic vessel fragments  and stone tools.The bottom layer (layer 1) did not yield any finds.6 6 The hearth was discovered in the specially formed north-eastern part of the pit SE 150 which appeared as a layer of charcoal 2cm thick containing some burnt clay fragments (Fig. 8).
Two 14 C dates are available from pit SE 150 (Structure III -Area 2), which significantly differ: the first date was calibrated to the end of the 5 th and the beginning of the 4 th millennium BC (Beta-362539) and the second to the end of the first half of the 4 th millennium BC .It is important to emphasise that the pottery from the pit is homogeneous, that comparable pottery occurs at sites within the region and beyond at the end of the 5 th and the beginning of the 4 th millennium BC, and that pottery, or any other proof of dating to the end of the first half of the 4 th millennium BC, was absent from Stoperce.7 7 Therefore, it is possible to assume that the date of Beta-339595 is too late for the presented context (Figs.ng 1980/1981(Structure I), 2000 (Structures II and III) and finally 2010 (Structure IV), this multiperiod site yielded four structures from the 5 th millennium BC (Strm≠nik Guli≠ 1983;Lub∏ina Tu∏ek 2004.74).Structures II and IV have been radiocarbon dated and are presented in detail below.

Ptuj-πolski center
Structure IV was deepened in the central part, where two cultural layers and a number of small pits were found (Fig. 11).Most of the pottery was found in layer SE 410, which was the top layer of a pit (Pl.5.78-85), layer SE 430, which was located beneath (Pl.5.89-91) and in a smaller pit SE 435, which was found at the deepest point of the structure.Parts of individual vessels were detected in all of the mentioned stratigraphic units (Pl.5.86-88), so we can assume that all layers were deposited within a short time span.This can be partially confirmed by 14 C analyses of charcoal samples, which place Structure IV between the second half of the 45 th and 43 rd centuries BC .
Structure II was probably rectangular.It was deepened along its entire length.The shallow deepening contained two cultural layers, a hearth and a greater concentration of burnt clay, probably the remains of a wall destroyed by fire.Two construction phases were documented, but they were more or less contemporary, as the northern and western sides of the building were only slightly modified during the second construction phase (Fig. 12). 8 8The bottom layer, which yielded a few stone artefacts and a large number of pottery fragments (Pl.6), was deposited between the two construction phases.The upper, yellowish brown layer was deposited after the second construction phase and contained less pottery.
Two 14 C dates are available to determine the age of Structure II; however, one of these is unreliable and 7 In north-eastern Slovenia, pottery from the end of the first half of the 4 th millennium was discovered at 14 C dated settlements at Kalinovnjek near Turni∏≠e (Kerman 2013a.242-245),Turni∏≠e (Toma∫ 2012.277-280),Gornje njive near Dolga vas (Kerman 2013b.407)and a 14 C dated graveyard Pod Kotom -jug near Krog (πavel 2009.64, 94).The absolute date from pit SE 11 at Ivankovci in Lendava is more or less simultaneous to dates, mentiones above.The pit yielded very fragmented (!) vessels from the Early Eneolithic period (Kavur 2011.125-127)together with fragments that are believed to be later, from the end of the first half of the 4 th millennium BC (Kavur 2011.find nos. 31 and 101).8 Construction phases were determined based on the heights of the post-holes.Individual post-holes were discovered at the base of the pit, while others were above the bottom layer.therefore was not included in further analyses. 9 9 The second available date places, with 68.2% probability, Structure II to the period between 4527-4366 calBC, which means that it may be slightly earlier than Structure IV.However, it has to be stressed that Structure II yielded one reliable 14 C date, while Structure IV offers three .

Zgornje Radvanje
The area of the site was intermittently inhabited from the Eneolithic to the Early Modern Period (Kramberger 2010b.311;2010a.7;Murko 2012.141-142;Arh 2012).This paper presents 23 Eneolithic settlement structures, which were investigated in 2007 and 2008. 110  The settlement was probably circular in form.Structure 22 was located in the central part in the first visible circumference, together with structures 31-36, which had not been deepened and yielded no finds. 111  The second circumference contained structures 5-21 and 26, with associated smaller pits; the third circumference was represented by structures 2-4, with associated smaller pits, while the partly researched fourth circumference might be represented by Structure 1 in the far north-eastern part of the excavation area and smaller pits SE 212, SE 245, SE 247 in the far western part (Fig. 15).
In addition to the structure studied already in complex 10 (Kramberger 2010b), labelled as Structure 5, 14 C dates were also obtained from structures 22, 1, 4, 6, 7 and 10.The size and form of Structure 22 is comparable to Structure 5. Furthermore, it contained two phases; both were 14 C dated (Fig. 16).Phase 1 was identified by several small pits containing stone finds, pottery fragments (Pl.7.109-118), fragments of burnt clay and wood, while Phase 2 was interpreted as the remains of a trapezoid house, 112 2 which was located above the Phase 1 pits.The daily activities of Phase 2 were documented by the remains of a hearth, with pottery (Pl.7.119-122) and stone finds.
Based on the position of the post-holes, structure 6 was rectangular (Fig. 17  Early Eneolithic Structure 4 was discovered under alluvial layer SE 983, which contained finds from the same period.Two layers were discovered in pit SE 1129.The pit base was filled with layer SE 1128.The 14 C dated layer SE 1102 was placed on top.Fragments of charcoal, burnt clay, stone tools and pottery (Pl.9.142-146) were detected in both layers and were especially concentrated between the two layers (Fig. 18).
The construction of Structure 7 was documented only with a few post-holes that were discovered in the central part of the deepening.The deepening of the structure yielded one cultural layer (SE 16 = 18 = 25), which was 14 C dated, with some smaller pits (SE 37,SE 26 and SE 21) beneath.The cultural layer contained fragments of burnt clay, charcoal, Early Eneolithic stone tools and pottery , as well as two concentrations of burnt clay (Fig. 19).
The deepening of 14 C dated Structure 1 (SE 600) showed two major concentrations of charcoal with fragments of burnt clay (SE 623, SE 625), probably part of the structures' burnt construction, and a cultural layer SE 599.Stone tools and pottery fragments were found in SE 599 (Pl.9.149-152) and in the concentrations of charcoal 153), where two 14 C samples were collected (Fig. 20).
The last 14 C dated structure, Structure 10, was identified as a pit (SE 1028) filled with layer SE 1027, which contained a large quantity of burnt clay, charcoal and fragments of pottery .A hearth (SE 1029) was discovered next to the pit (both Phase 1).On top of layer SE 1027 and the hearth, another layer, SE 1004, was discovered which contained fragments of charcoal, burnt clay and various fragments of Early Eneolithic pottery (Pl.10.154-157) (Phase 2).Post-hole SE 1040, also containing fragments of Early Eneolithic pottery (Pl.10.158-159), was discovered under layer SE 1027.It was therefore assumed that it represented part of Structure 10 (Fig. 21).
Ten out of eleven dates from one part of the settlement at Zgornje Radvanje, which was investigated in 2007 and 2008, more or less overlap and date the settlement to the last third of the 5 th millennium BC.Sample Beta-305862 from post-hole SE 1040 was dated somewhat later, to the end of the 5 th and beginning of the 4 th millennium BC .The post-hole was, as already mentioned, discovered beneath layer SE 1027, so it was assumed that it was related to Structure 10 (Phase 1).However, charcoal sample Beta-305861 from SE 1027 yielded an earlier date, which is consistent with the rest of the settlement.So post-hole SE 1040 was perhaps dug into Structure 10 from the later layer SE 1004 (Phase 2), which is located above the layer SE 1027 and its cut into later layers was not detected (Fig. 21).This seems credible, but no 14 C dates are yet available from SE 1004, so we can not completely exclude the possibility that the 14 C dating of sample Beta-305862 from pit SE 1040 is incorrect in its context (Bronk Ramsey 2009b.1023-1024).

Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica
The latest site studied in this paper and the only one without14 C dates is Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica. 1 14 4In 1988 and 1989 Roman and Bronze Age settlements were discovered and partially studied, together with five hollows from the period studied in this paper (Strm≠nik Guli≠ 1989.224-226;1990.173-175).
Most of the pottery was found in three pits which were investigated in 1989 and interpreted as pithouses (Strm≠nik Guli≠ 1990.174-175). 115  Pit-houses I and II contained a single cultural layer, which yielded burnt clay, charcoal, fragments of stone tools and pottery , while pit-house III contained two cultural layers with pottery (Pl.12.189-192) and a higher concentration of burnt clay mixed with charcoal.Layer 9 filled the deepening of the pit (Phase 1); a concentration of burnt clay and charcoal -probably the remains of a hearth -was situated on top of it, while layer 5 (Phase 2) represents the top layer (Fig. 24).

Neolithic-Eneolithic settlement in NE Slovenia
The settlements at Andrenci, Stoperce, Ptuj-πolski center and Zgornje Radvanje yielded a total of 20 dated samples, while part of the site at Radvanje-Ha-bakuk 2 (Arh 2012) offers another five dated samples.These provide a relatively good basis for explaining past events (Figs.9-10, 13-14, 22-23 and their comments).Andrenci, two settlement phases at Stoperce and Ptuj-πolski center offer only individual 14 C-dated structures, 116 6 while the studied part of Zgornje Radvanje yielded a number of dates, so it is possible to analyse the life span of the settlement.The dates of the samples derived from the same structure were combined before calibration (function R. Combine), so that they were evenly represented during the activity period. 117  In contrast, dates that refer to a variety of contexts were studied separately.The 'Span' function, which determines only the duration of directly dated events, was used, together with the 'Interval' function, which determines the whole range of activities between the beginning and the end of one phase (Fig. 25). 1 18 8   Based on the presented 14 C dates, it is possible to conclude that the studied part of the settlement at Zgornje Radvanje, as well as the settlements at Andrenci, Stoperce and Ptuj-πolski center document a time span of settlement activities in the period between the second half of the 47 th and the first half of the 40 th century BC, while the studied part of the Radvanje-Habakuk 2 settlement, partly dates back to the first and the second half of the 4 th millennium BC (Arh 2012.Fig. 10;2012. Fig. 40).According to the current chronology of the 'central and southern Slovenian Neolithic and Earlier Eneolithic' and 14 C dates that are known so far, the settlements at Andrenci, Stoperce, Ptuj-πolski center and Zgornje Radvanje can be placed in the period between the Younger or Late Neolithic and Early Eneolithic, while the settlement in the studied part of Radvanje-Habakuk 2 dates partly to the Middle Eneolithic period (Ve-lu∏≠ek 2011. 225-233).
The earliest settlement, dating to the end of the first half and the middle of the 5 th millennium BC, was documented at Andrenci and Stoperce (Structure I -SE 128).  Structures 7, 4, 5, 1, 22, 6 and 10 (Phase 1  61).These latest contexts are dated to the end of the 5 th and the beginning of the 4 th millennium BC.

Pottery production
2723 ceramic objects, which were mended from 16848 pottery fragments, were analysed according to the established method of macroscopic standards (Horvat 1999); 62 different fabrics were identified.Quartz (A), mica (C) and iron oxide (E) are present in all fabrics, only the size of grains and their frequency differ.
In addition, some fabrics were characterised by whitish, somewhat softer grains, undefined in more detail.LM20, LM23 and LM59 were charac- 19 Structure 1 at Radvanje-Habakuk (Arh 2012.Fig.10) is dated to the same period.20 Later 14 C dates from Zgornje Radvanje are therefore largely a result of the characteristics of the calibration curve in the second half of the 5 th millennium BC.This is quite curved and therefore more intersections of the value of the conventional dates with calibration curve occur, while dates have subsequently extended ranges (Wiener 2012.428-429).
terised by partially burnt organic material. 221  The fabrics are macroscopically comparable, apart from the Andrenci pottery, which differs slightly in having a smaller amount of mica, which is probably due to different clays being used, as mica is naturally present in clay and its decomposition takes a place around 900-950°C (Guirao et al. 2014.757-758;App. 1).
Most of the pottery was made of fabrics without quartz temper, and fabrics with a small amount of quartz temper.Andrenci (83%), Zgornje Radvanje (61%), Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (74%) and pits from the second phase of the settlement at Stoperce (66%) are dominated by pottery fragments made of very fine-grained fabrics.Fine-grained pottery was less frequent (most of it was found in pits from the second settlement phase at Stoperce -21%); coarsegrained fabric was even less common.Only Structure I at Stoperce and Ptuj-πolski center yielded slightly more pottery made of fine-grained fabrics (58% and 52%) (Fig. 27).
The pottery was hand-thrown and finished with treatment of the exterior and interior to remove irregularities from the surface of the objects.At An-drenci, most of the pottery surface is uneven or rough, which means that their surface was smoothened before firing (98%).Structure I at Stoperce (91%), Ptuj-πolski center (74%), Zgornje Radvanje (92%), Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (83%) and pits from the second phase of the settlement at Stoperce (88%) were dominated by pottery with smooth surfaces which were sponged before firing (Fig. 28). 222 In some cases, the surface was coated with a coloured clay slip, most frequently red.This type of pottery was discovered at Andrenci (3%), Structure I at Stoperce (32%), Ptuj-πolski center (9%), Zgornje Radvanje (3%) and at Ho≠e-Oglarska delavnica (7%); it was coated with either a thicker layer of resistant slip (probably applied before firing, it now crumbles off the pottery surface), or thinner slips that can be removed from the pottery surface if touched with a wet finger (Fig. 29).
The decoration was made with fingers or various tools prior to firing.Three techniques of decoration can be seen -impressions, incisions and applied decoration -wherein the motif was made with a single technique or a combination of two or three techniques.Impressions of the tips of various tools, and fingernail and fingertip impressions can be seen on the pottery surface.Incised decoration is a technique that includes dragging a tool tip/s across the surface, while applied decoration involves making an appliqué which is later applied to the surface. 2 23 3 The largest ratio of decorated pottery to undecorated vessels was discovered in Structure I at Stoperce (47%), Ptuj-πolski center (39%) and in Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (37%).Less decorated pottery was found at Andrenci (28%), Zgornje Radvanje (25%) and in the pits of the second settlement phase at Stoperce (15%) (Fig. 30). 2 24 4 Individual sites are dominated by different decorating techniques.At Andrenci, most of the pottery was decorated with simple protrusions made with applied decoration (80%) and rarely with impressions (15%) or incisions (5%).Structure I at Stoperce is dominated by applied decoration and impressions (both 30%), with incisions (13%), combinations of incisions and impressions (13%), a combination of applied decoration and impressions (9%) and a combination of incisions and applied decoration (5%).The pottery at Ptuj-πolski center more often has impressions (46%), while the quantities of applied decoration (28%), incisions (14%) and combinations of incisions and impressions (9%) are comparable to pit SE 128 at Stoperce.Most of the pottery from Zgornje Radvanje (49%) and Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (52%) was decorated with incisions, while a smaller proportion has applied decoration (Radvanje 25%, Ho≠e 14%), impressions (Radvanje 14%, Ho≠e 15%) or combinations of incisions and impressions (Radvanje 10%, Ho≠e 15%).Most of the ware from the second settlement phase at Stoperce is decorated with impressions (40%) or a combination of incisions and impressions (30%) (Fig. 31).
The firing atmosphere differs from vessel to vessel, wherein two firing conditions are most common.Vessels from all the sites were most often fired under oxidising conditions, wherein the firing temperature was too low and the oxygen was insufficient for the complete combustion of organic material.
Typically, the surfaces and fractures of pottery fired under these conditions have several bright hues (5 or more), with several grey areas that indicate partially burnt organic material. 2 25 5Another common firing technique was with incomplete oxidation with a reducing phase at the end of the process.As the name suggests, vessels were constantly fired in oxidising conditions and the oxygen supply intentionally reduced during cooling.The pottery fractures are in bright colours, with darker grey tones on the surface.Such pottery was found in pit SE 128 at Stoperce.It is rare in comparison with pottery fired under incomplete oxidising conditions (13%), but occurs more often at Ptuj-πolski center (29%), Zgornje Radvanje (30%), Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (24%) and the Early Eneolithic pits at Stoperce (40%).Some pottery fragments from Zgornje Radvanje (0.20%), Ptuj-πolski center (1%) and from pits from the second phase of the settlement at Stoperce (3%) had fractures and surfaces with a uniform dark grey colour.These vessels were fired under reducing conditions, with constant temperature and reduced oxygen supply while firing as well as cooling (Fig. 32).23 Appliqués are discussed as parts of decoration, as some are very decorative (Kramberger 2014a.Fig.149), although they probably also served as an aid in holding the object (like handles and lugs).24 The results need to be observed with caution.Namely, analyses included all rim fragments of vessels of closed forms, all fragments of vessel girths, all handle fragments, all fragments of the feet of footed vessels.Some of these were, within the studied pottery assemblage, never decorated or decorated rarely.25 All pottery from Andrenci was fired under these conditions, while SE 128 in Stoperce had 87%, πolski center 70%, Zgornje Radvanje 63%, Orglarska delavnica 76% and the second phase of the settlement at Stoperce a total of 57% of pottery fired under these conditions.26 According to the pottery fractures, complete oxidation, oxidation with reduced atmosphere in the final stage and reduced firing with the oxidising atmosphere in the final stage were determined.Fragments were mostly very small, so it is possible that the evaluation would be different if sherds were larger.
The hardness of the pottery was determined by macroscopic analysis.A statistical comparison of the results of a Mohs test showed that the pottery from Structure I at Stoperce, Ptuj-πolski center, Zgornje Radvanje, Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica and the Early Eneolithic pits at Stoperce was on average harder (dominated by a value of 3-6 on the Mohs' scale of hardness) than the pottery from Andrenci (values 1-4 on the Mohs' scale of hardness) (Fig. 33).The hardness of pottery depends on many factors, the most important of which are the composition and microstructural properties of clay, the surface treatment of vessels prior to firing, firing temperature and atmosphere (Rice 1987. 354). 227

Forms of pottery, decoration and typological comparisons
The pottery found at the settlements from the 5 th millennium BC differs in form and decoration, with some notable differences from site to site which can be seen between contexts, which according to the results of 14 C analyses, date to different periods, as well as between contexts that were contemporaneous.Good comparisons are available in different geographic areas and the studied sites can be connected to different cultural groups.
As mentioned above, according to the current chronology of the 'central and southern Slovenian Neolithic and Earlier Eneolithic and 14 C dates known so far, the settlements at Andrenci, Stoperce, Ptujπolski center and the studied part of the settlement at Zgornje Radvanje date to the Younger or Late Neolithic and Early Eneolithic (Velu∏≠ek 2011.225-233).
According to the above chronology, the earliest settlement in central and south-eastern Slovenia is culturally defined as pertaining to the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture, followed by the Lasinja Culture, dated to the Early Eneolithic period, and later by the horizon of pottery with furrowed incisions, which is dated to the Middle Eneolithic (Velu∏≠ek 2011.209).
The chronological scheme of the 'central and south Slovenian Neolithic and Earlier Eneolithic' is comparable to the Austrian chronological scheme, with the only difference being the terminology used. 228  However, a very different chronological scheme exists in neighbouring Croatia (Markovi≤ 1994.27-29)and Hungary.The transition from the Neolithic to the Copper Age is better defined in Hungary, where the Sé horizon, early and middle phases of the Lengyel Culture (West Hungary) and the Tisza Culture (East Hungary) define the Late Neolithic period.Phase Lengyel III (West Hungary), which according to Anton Velu∏≠ek is correlated with the Sava group of the Lengyel Culture (Velu∏≠ek 2011.210-222), and the Proto-Tiszapolgár and Tiszapolgár horizons (East Hungary) date to the Early Eneolithic period, while the Balaton-Lasinja Culture and the horizon of pottery with furrowed incisions ('Furhenstich') date to the Middle Eneolithic period (Raczky 1974;Makkay 1976;Zalai-Gaál 1982;Kalicz 1973;also Bánffy 1995c.192;1997.61).The transition from the Neolithic to Eneolithic has been explained by changes in society and lifestyle, supposedly related to the spread of new technologies from the area of the central Balkans to Central Europe (Bánffy 1995c.183-187).
Contacts with the central Balkans are also supposed to be seen in a number of new forms of pottery that first appear during the Late Lengyel Culture and which are a specific feature of the subsequent Balaton-Lasinja Culture (Bánffy 2002).The second half of the 47 th to the beginning of the 45 th century BC Differences in pottery forms and pottery decoration can be seen at Andrenci (Pls.1-2) and Structure I at Stoperce (Pl.3), although they were absolutely dated to approximately the same era, i.e. between the 47 th and mid 45 th century BC (95.4% probability) or between the second half of the 47 th and the beginning of the 45 th century BC (68.2% probability).Differences can be noticed mainly in the forms of pots and decorative motifs, while, for example, footed dishes, dishes and jugs are almost identical.
To begin with, we focus on finds with no significant differences, because such finds have been found over a wide geographical area.1995b.87;Zalai-Gaál 2003.294-295).
A common feature of pottery decoration at Andrenci and SE 128 from Stoperce are plastic motifs on girths (Pl.1.1-2, 7, 9,10,12,17,20;32,37,[42][43][44]46;63,65,68), while there is a great difference in the frequency of occurrence of such motifs in comparison with other types of decoration.Applied motifs are the most common tech- 29 Simple dishes with feet tapering at the end appear individually at Andrenci (Pl.13.1).30 SE 128 at Stoperce yielded a similarly formed dish with a concave body (Pl.3.57).31 Good comparisons are available at, for example, the Late Lengyel sites of Nagykanizsa-Inkey-Kápolna, Zalaszentbalázs-Szőlőhegyi mező and ∞ate∫-Sredno polje (cf.Horváth, Kalicz 2006.58;Velu∏≠ek 2011c.214-242;Kramberger 2014.Fig. 186).32 Comparisons can be found at, for example, the sites of Lengyel Culture, the Sopot Culture and at ∞ate∫-Sredno polje (Kramberger 2014.291).33 Although only three such pots are typologically identified, based on fragments of the lower parts of the vessels, it is possible to assume that the majority were of this form.All fragments of closed vessels from structures A and B have rounded bodies, while the necks of all closed vessels from structures A and B were everted.We can assume that most of these fragments are fragments of pots, while some could be from jugs or the 'buta' type of vessels.
that more pottery is decorated with impressions.Sti∏ki vasi, all of these with artefacts that are comparable to the studied pottery, have been dated to the so-called Sava Group of the Lengyel Culture.According to Mitja Gu∏tin, Moverna vas in Bela Krajina is not attributed to this group (Gu∏tin 2005.Fig.1).However, Velu∏≠ek considers that the distribution of this cultural group is wider and includes sites in Bela Krajina, around Karlovac, Ko≠evsko and Slovenian Styria (Velu∏≠ek 2011.206), which is confirmed by the pottery from the deepening of Structure I at Stoperce.

End of the 46 th to 43 rd century BC
Based on individual 14 C date from Structure II and dates from Structure III, the site at Ptuj-πolski center can be dated to between the end of the 46 th and 43 rd century BC (Fig. 25).The date partly overlaps with dates from both, i.e.Structure I at Andrenci and Zgornje Radvanje.This indicates that Ptuj-πolski center may have been contemporary with Structure I at Stoperce and with Andrenci, as well as with the structures at Zgornje Radvanje.However, the pottery assemblages found in the structures differ from site to site.
Based on pottery assemblages, Ptuj-πolski center is culturally dated to the Late Lengyel Culture (Kavur 2010.71) or the 'wider Lengyel Culture' (Gu∏tin 2005.9, Fig. 1;Toma∫ 2010.164).The comparisons presented in this paper are only partly consistent with this definition.In addition to finds that are comparable to material from Andrenci and Structure I at Stoperce, Structures I-IV also yielded finds comparable to the Lasinja Culture in the region.The most important feature of the Late Lengyel Culture (Carneiro 2004.267-271) and the 'wider area of the Lengyel Culture' (Gu∏tin 2005.12-13) are vessels with a coloured clay slip. 337  It can be seen on dishes of identical or similar forms as those from Andrenci and SE 128 at Stoperce: on dishes with a convex body and an everted rim (Pl.5.82; Pl. 6.100), simple hemispherical dishes (Pl.5.78 ; Pl. 6.92), dishes with a convex body, of simple form with a tapered upper part, where the base is not preserved (Pl.5.90; Pl. 6.94, 102), on high hollow cylindrical feet (Pl.6.96) and on numerous foot fragments. 3 38 8  In addition to the presented dishes with clay slip, which were probably footed, Ptujπolski center yielded many footed dishes with a convex body and straight rim decorated with four tongued appliqués (Pl.5.79, 81, 89; Pl. 6.93, 95) which have been identified as a typical find of the Slovenian Lasinja Culture (Gu∏tin et al. 2005.47;Velu-∏≠ek 2011.222).These were usually fired under incom-plete oxidising conditions, with reducing conditions used at the end of the firing process.The same firing process was used for high hollowed sloping feet (Pl.6.99), high hollowed sloping feet, convex in the middle (Pl.5.83), high hollowed sloping feet, convex on top, and differently formed low feet (Pl.6.97-98).Some footless dishes and bowls were similar in form (Pl. 6.101, 103) occur together with dishes with a simple semi-circular form (Pl. 5.91).Handles or spouts, semi-circular spouts with a partition (Pl.5.91), or thrown spouts (Pl.5.84) could be attached to all types of dishes and bowls as well as footed dishes.
Even more differences can be seen between jugs and pots from Ptuj-πolski center and those from Andrenci and Structure I at Stoperce.nje 186,188).
In addition to the similarity between pottery from Ptuj-πolski center and pottery from the sites mentioned above, noticeable differences also exist.The former has frequent imprinted decoration more frequently, while the pot with a low convex body and a sharp transition between a medium cylindrical neck and shoulders, as well as footed dishes with a straight rim and hanging appliqués, which were identified in the region as typical of the Lasinja Culture, are not known at the above-mentioned sites.Is this merely a result of archaeological research, or do we have to look for an answer elsewhere?Ptuj-πolski center is located near the so-called 'western route' defined by Eszter Bánffy and based on many elements of southern origin seen on pottery.
Sites further away from this route have fewer of these elements (Bánffy 1994.294;2002.42).As already noted, these links are important, as they help to determine the transition from the Hungarian Late Neolithic to the Copper Age, as they link with changes that should have resulted from spread of new technologies (primarily copper) from the area of the central Balkans to Central Europe.Further research is needed to answer the above question, but, at this point, it is necessary to stress that there are noticeable similarities to pottery from several Copper Age cultural groups in the central Balkans, primarily with the early phases of the Salcuta Culture.Several correlations can be found (Kramberger 2014.292, 308-309, 310-311).However, the comparison with a uniquely formed pot with a low convex body and sharp transition between medium cylindrical neck and shoulders (Pl.5.88; Fig. 34.1) has to be stressed here.No similar form has been found at other Slovenian sites (cf.Fig. 34.2).

The end of the 44 th and 43 rd century BC
As mentioned above, 14 C dates and settlement model date structures 7, 4, 5, 1, 22, 6 and 10 (Phase 1) at Zgornje Radvanje to the late 44 th and 43 rd century BC (68.2% probability) or, more specifically, between the second half of the 44 th and the early 42 nd century BC (95.4% probability) (Fig. 25).Pottery from these structures is typologically well comparable with pottery from Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (cf.Pl. 7-10 with Pl. 11-12), but slightly different from that found at Ptuj-πolski center, mainly in elements where similarities with Ptuj-πolski center, Structure I at Stoperce and Andrenci were found.
Pottery similar to that found at Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica and Zgornje Radvanje can primarily be found 4 41 1 at sites dated later as pertaining to the Lengyel Cul-

Chronologically concurrent sites and cultural groups
To summarise, the best comparisons with the pottery from Andrenci can be found in pottery from the later Lengyel Culture (phases Lengyel IIb and III) in western Hungary, Austrian Styria and Bukovnica and from later phases of the MOG Culture in Austria (phases IIa and IIb), while pottery from chronologically contemporary Structure I at Stoperce correlates with sites in central and south-eastern Slovenia.Pottery from slightly later structures at Ptuj-πolski center is comparable to pottery from Rabenstein near Lawamünd and some sites in central and south-eastern Slovenia, while pottery from Zgornje Radvanje, Ho-≠e-Orglarska delavnica and settlement Phase 2 at Stoperce correlates with Lasinja Culture sites.Pl. 1) and ∞ate∫-Sredno polje.This indicates that these sites were partly contemporary.The unpaint-ed phase of the Lengyel Culture (Lengyel Phase III) was, by definition, concurrent with the 'Phase of unpainted pottery' MOG IIb in Austria, while Phase MOG IIa, which is characterised by multiple colour painting, was probably earlier (Bánffy 1997.61).However, scholars note that this does not correlate with the AMS 14 C dating (Velu∏≠ek 2011.236).This was furthermore confirmed with dates from Andrenci and Structure I at Stoperce, which are earlier than dates from MOG IIb and comparable to MOG IIa (Michelstetten, Oberbergern, Antonshöhe in Reichersdorf) (Fig. 35).Structure II at Ptuj-πolski center yielded a date that overlaps with the later MOG IIa, with earlier MOG IIb, with dates of the Late Lengyel Culture site at Szombathely metro in Hungary and dates of settlement phases 4 and 5 at Moverna vas (south-eastern Slovenia), which can probably be attributed to the Sava Group (Velu∏≠ek 2011.226-227).Dates from phases II and III of the Salcuta Culture, where, for example, a comparison of a pot with a rounded lower part was found, are also comparable (Fig. 35).

Conclusion
Comparative analyses of pottery found at the studied settlements and beyond, as well as comparisons of radiocarbon dates show that, based on the presented settlements of the 5 th millennium BC in northeastern Slovenia, it is possible to identify three cultural groups, i.e. the Sava, the (Late) Lengyel and the Lasinja Culture.According to the current chronology of the 'the central and southern Slovenian Neolithic and Early Eneolithic' and 14 C dates known so far, these settlements date to between the Younger/ Late Neolithic and the Early Eneolithic (Velu∏≠ek 2011.225-23).
Andrenci in western Slovenske gorice represents the extreme south-western site of the Lengyel Culture, while the more or less concurrent Structure I from Stoperce at Haloze belongs to the Sava Group.They are dated to between the end of the 47 th century and the first half of the 45 th century BC, which is consistent with the earlier dates of the Late Lengyel Culture in western Hungary (Zalaszentbalázs-Szőlőhegyi mező) and dates of MOG IIa in Austria.
The settlement at Ptuj-πolski center dates to between the end of the 46 th and 43 rd century BC. 443 3 The comparative analyses of the pottery are not completely consistent with the relative chronological incorporation of Ptuj-πolski center into the wider Lengyel Culture (Gu∏tin 2005.13, Fig. 1) or Late Lengyel Culture (Kavur 2010.71).The pottery found in structures (I, II and IV) shows elements of the Sava Group in central and south-eastern Slovenia, as well as elements already attributed to the Early Eneolithic Lasinja Culture.Comparable pottery assemblages are deemed to have been produced in the early phase (Phase I) of the Lasinja Culture in Austria (Tiefengraber 2004. 219).
These phases were followed by the 'Classical' Lasinja Culture.The studied sites passed through two phases: structures 7, 5, 1, 22, 6 and 10 (Phase 1) at Zgornje Radvanje, part of the settlement at Radvanje-Habakuk 2 (Arh 2012.Fig.10) and the settlement at Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica represent the older phase, namely the end of the 44 th and 43 rd century BC (68.2% probability), with dates corresponding to earlier (!) dates of the Lasinjska Culture and related cultures in neighbouring areas.Structure IV at Ptujπolski center was more or less contemporaneous, although pottery from this structure is well comparable with material from Structure II on the same site, while its decoration and forms differ slightly from the material found at Zgornje Radvanje and Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica.Differences in decorative techniques, motifs and forms could therefore be regional or chronological, but the latter can be confirmed or disproved only with new 14 C dates and new pottery assemblages.
The Late Lasinja Culture is presented by pits from the second settlement phase at Stoperce, individual pits in part of the site Radvanje-Habakuk 2 and, according to the 14 C date, post-hole SE 1040 at Zgornje Radvanje.This settlement dates to the end of the 5 th and the beginning of the 4 th millennium BC, where the dates correlate with the later (!) dates of the Lasinja Culture and related cultures in neighbouring countries.

Fig. 1 .
Fig. 1.Map of north-eastern Slovenian sites with settlement remains dating to the 5 th millennium BC.Larger dots and inscriptions mark settlements, which are analysed in this paper.
).In contrast to structures 5 and 22, a uniform cultural layer (SE 250 = 252 = 226) has been detected in a shallow deepening, which was 14 C dated.It contained fragments of charcoal and burnt clay, individual stone tools and pottery fragments.
) at Zgornje Radvanje are earlier than Structure III (SE 150) at Stoperce, from post-hole SE 1040 at Zgornje Radvanje and individual contexts from part of the settlement at Radvanje-Habakuk 2, researched in 2010 (Arh 2012.Fig.
has a distinct transition to the upper part (Pl.4.76) (see also App. 2-3).As mentioned above, the decoration is noticeably different.The most common form consist of individual bunches of incisions that end with awl impressions (Pl.4.73, 77).Another decoration that has to be mentioned consists of two lines of impressions on the shoulders of a closed vessel (Pl.4.76) and the upper parts of the feet of footed dishes(Pl.4.71).A foot of this type was also found in layer SE 1004 in ZgornjeRadvanje (cf.Pl.  10.155), which may be linked to post-hole SE 1040 and its absolute date (see Fig.25and comments on dates from Zgornje Radvanje).
14 C dates from Structure B in Andrenci and Structure I at Stoperce are comparable with dates from the Late Lengyel site at Zalaszentbalázs-Szőlőhegyi mező in western Hungary, from Dragomelj, settlement Phase 3 of Moverna vas and some of the dates from Resnikov Prekop (see alsoMleku∫ et al. 2013.

Size of studied pottery assemblages. The only data available from Andrenci is the quantity of pot- tery fragments that were found in the settlement.
spouts with partition (Pl.7.111;Pl.11.170) and extracted spouts(Pl.7.115;Pl. 12.181) are also present.

The second half of the 41 st and the first half of the 40 th century BC
pottery has been discovered in both structures.These structures are earlier than Structure III at Stoperce, part of the site at Radvanje-Habakuk 2 (Arh 2012) and the date from the post-hole SE 1040 at Zgornje Radvanje.Dates from the mentioned structures at Zgornje Radvanje, as well as from Structure IV at Ptuj-πolski center, are consistent with the earlier dates of the Lasinja Culture and its related cultures in neighbouring countries, while the dates from Structure III at Stoperce (SE 150), part of the site at Radvanje-Habakuk 2 and from post-hole SE 1040 in Zgornje Radvanje, correlate with later dates of the Lasinja Culture and its related cultures.It is important to note that sites with comparable pottery material have been shown to be chronologically concurrent (Keutschacher See, Pri Muri near Lendava and Brezje near Turni∏≠e) (Fig.

Pottery fabrics and their representation in the Late Neolithic pottery assemblages at Andrenci (AN) and Stoperce 1 (ST1) and Early Eneolithic pottery assemblages at Ptuj-πolski center (πC), Zgornje Radvanje (RAD), Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica (H) and Stoperce (ST2). Fabric codes, firstly define type of a particular grain (A -quartz, B -calcium carbonate, C -mica, D -charred organic substance, E -iron oxides, J -undefined white grains), followed by its size (1 -<0.25mm, 2 -0.26 to 0.50mm, 3 -0.51 to 2.0mm, 4 -2.01 to 3mm and 5 ->3mm), and finally their frequency (1 -<5 grains per mm 2 , 2 -5 to 10 grains per mm 2 and 3 ->10 particles per mm 2 ).
Translation: dr.Nives KokezaThe paper presents a summary of some of the results of the PhD thesis'Settlement Structures and Pottery Assemblages in the Fifth Millennium BC in Northeastern Slovenia', whichwas written under the supervision of prof.dr.Mihael Budja at the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana (Kramberger 2014).I am grateful to archaeologist Marija Lub∏ina Tu∏ek (ZVKDS, CPA Ptuj), head of archaeological excavations at Stoperce, and in 2000 and 2010 at Ptuj-πolski center, to retired archaeologist Mira Strm≠nik Guli≠, head of the archaeological excavations at ZgornjeRadvanje, Ho≠e-Orglarska delavnica and in 1980-1981at Ptuj-πolski center, which enabled me to publish this paper.AMS 14 C dating of the settlement of Zgornje Radvanje was supported by the Group of Archaeology on the Motorways of the Republic of Slovenia (SAAS) at the Institute for Protection of Cultural Heritage of Slovenia (ZVKDS) and the Motorway Company in the Republic of Slovenia(DARS d.d.).